MUSEUM "WAALSDORP"

An on-line Display Method for Scanners Applied to Photo-detectors

Synopsis

During the development of a solid-state device measurements are made to improve the method of manufacture. If a certain parameter varies along the surface of the device, a scanning system may be used  for its examination. In the course of the manufacture of infrared detectors of InSb in our laboratory a flying-spot scanner and a display system were developed. These have been used to examine the responsivity along the surface of the detectors.
A description is given of the scanner and of the display system.
Typical results obtained with the display system are shown on the enclosed photographs.

A modern photovoltaic infrared sensor (2x2 mm)

Introduction

The number and type of imperfections of the surface of a single crystal of semi-conducting material will depend on treatments like sawing, lapping, etching and (chemical) polishing. Besides these other sources of imperfections, like dust particles and drying residuals, may contribute. In the following expedients will be discussed, by which information can be obtained about the inhomogeneities in the sensitivity of a photo-detector over its surface.
If a photo-detector is scanned with a dot of light the output of the detector will correspond to the photo-efficiency at the place of the spot on its surface. The characteristics of the inhomogeneities in the photovoltaic response along the surface should give indications about their causes and in some respect, of the quality of the detector.

On-line display methods

Two methods are in use for displaying the output of a scanning system on-line on a X-Y oscilloscope. Principles are as follows

1. The voltage corresponding to the  X and Y co-ordinate of the flying spot measure on the surface of the device are connected to the horizontal and  vertical inputs respectively of the oscilloscope. From the output signal of the device a signal Z is derived, which modulates the intensity of the spot on the screen.

2. From the three signals, X, Y and Z ( Z being the output of the device) the following two signals are derived: Z + A*X and Y+ B*X, where A and B are properly chosen constants.

These signals are connected to the vertical and horizontal inputs of an oscilloscope. The number of scans, which are displayed will be kept rather small in practice, to restrict overlapping of parts of the successive scans.
A new design for the on-line display, comparable with the second method, is described hereafter. The method has the advantages, that in the pictures overlapping of areas is avoided and that the pictures  are well detailed. Experience has been obtained with this method by application to the scanning of photovoltaic detectors.
Photovoltaic energy is the direct transfer of (sun)light in electricity. Some materials have the property to absorb light-photons and along this way to free tighten electrons. This is called the photovoltaic effect if an electric voltage is generated.

Description of the applied method

The Cartesian co-ordinates of a moving spot on the scanned surface will be denoted by X and Y, measured on the surface. Y stands for the co-ordinate of the fast scan. The output of the scanned device will be denoted by Z. X,Y and Z are represented by voltages (Volts). The single-valued function Z(X,Y) can be represented by the curved surface of an “object” in our visual three-dimensional space. The situation is depicted in fig.1, where the section with the  Z-Y plane is marked by dots. This section is sketched separately in fig. 2. Let (Y,Z) be a point of the boundary of the section, and let Y_p be a function of Y and Z, defined by Y_p = Y + Z * cotg(alpha), where Y_p can be considered as the point (Y,Z) projected on the Y-axis from a direction of observation, given by the angle alpha.

Let the point (Y¹, Z¹) be a point on the boundary, which is projected in Y¹_p. Then from  fig.2 we may conclude that (Y,Z) is visible to the observer, when no point (Y¹, Z¹) can be found, for which Y¹_p > Y_p while Y¹ < Y.

Fig. 1     

Fig. 2     

By placing the observer far from the object we obtain the simple relation Y_p=Y+Z.A where A stands for cotg(alpha);, which is a constant now. The process of making a section with the Y-Z plane will be called a scan. At every scan during with Y increases we find that, for the visibility of the corresponding point (Y,Z), Y_p  has to be larger than all previous values arisen during the scan.

Fig. 3  

By the use of a peak-hold circuit, of which a simple example is shown in Fig. 3, the visibility of a point may be determined. Y_p is used as the input signal for the peak-hold circuit, the output will be denoted by Y_m. The diode in the circuit will be considered ideal. Obviously, during the periods that Y_m is increasing it will follow Y_p, at other moments it is constant and larger than Y_p. The value of the threshold Y_p has to be chosen such that for the initial points of all scans Y_p is larger than Y_0. A complete image is built up by combining Y_m-traces of successive numbers of scans, at gradually increasing values of X, into one picture. The X-scan will be called the slow scan. The capacitor has to be discharged after every fast scan.

Fig. 4  

In Fig. 4 Y, Y_p and Y_m are depicted for an arbitrary case. Characteristic of the peak-hold circuit is that the visibility of a point is determined by the diode, which is either conducting or non-conducting. The state of the diode is also indicated by Y_m which is either increasing or constant. It will be obvious that points are visible only during the conducting periods of the diode. By using Y_p for the vertical and X for the horizontal deflection of an oscilloscope and suppressing the brightness of the spot on the screen during the non-conducting periods of the diode we obtain pictures showing the curved surface without overlap, provided there is also suppression during the back-sweep of the fast scan. From Fig. 4 we may conclude that by using Y_m  instead of Y_p  overlapping will not occur at all. Thus there is no necessity to make a decision on the suppressing depending on the state of the diode. The best results have been obtained by using Y_m and suppression, the latter only during relatively long periods of constant Y_m . This results in a contour intensification in the general pictures.
Successive scans should be close together in order to obtain coherent pictures, a typical number being 2000 scans per picture. With a frequency of 100 Hz for the fast scan the generation of a picture will take 20 seconds. During that period a photographic record is made of the display on the screen.

Experimental set-up

Fig.5: Optics and mechanics of the flying-spot scanner

 
Fig.6: The circuit which generated the steering signals for the mirrors and oscilloscope

The sine-wave was fed to the torsional scanner. Due to the small mismatch between the resonance-frequency of the torsional scanner and the sine-wave frequency a phase-shift would be introduced, which then was compensated by using the above mentioned adjustable delay. The amplitude of the sine-wave was chosen such that the dot of light was on the sensitive area of the device only during the almost linear parts of the sine-wave. The output (Z) was amplified (frequency: D.C. to 100 kHz) and added to the triangular wave, which represented the Y co-ordinate. The result was Y_p=Y+Z.A.. Signal Y_p  was fed to the peak-hold circuit, which gave Y_m as output. This signal was connected to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. The saw-tooth generator had an adjustable period up to 20 seconds. This signal was connected to the horizontal input of the oscilloscope and to the X-mirror.

In Fig. 7 the layout is given for the electronic-circuits and components.

Fig 7

The following three photographs show the mechanical layout with the electronic circuits of the scanner:

Control-unit with oscilloscope

The pictures shown in this paper are Y_m-X displays. They have the appearance as if a number of cross-sections was made through the “object” perpendicular to the direction of observation. This is a result of using pulsed intensity modulation in the display with a frequency of 100 kHz. By this presentation a better display can be obtained of the steep parts.
In the experimental set-up the intensity modulation was controlled such that it was suppressed during the back-sweep of the X and Y scans and during the relatively long periods of constant   Y_m. The intensity modulation could be accentuated by using pulses of 3 µs width, obtained   from the divider circuit. A selection could be made from the repetition rates: 100, 50, 25 and 12,5 kHz.
When an extra pulse is applied to the flip-flop which drives the Y-generator a phase shift of 180 ^degrees will be introduced in the fast scan, and we obtain due to the symmetrical scanning a similar picture, but seen from the “opposite” side. 

Preparation of the detectors  

The detectors were made of n-type single crystals of InSb. After sawing the original crystal into cubes the damaged surface layers were removed by etching and chemical polishing. A p-type surface layer was obtained by diffusion. A mesa-structure was etched out of the cube by covering a part of the polished surface and etching away the surrounding p-layer. Contacts were made to both sides of the p-n junction, the n-side was soldered to a covar strip. This strip was attached to the cold finger of a dewar for liquid nitrogen. The mounting place was in front of a window with a low absorption coefficient for both visual and infrared light. 

Examples

Sawing and lapping will cause cracks which may increase the recombination of electrons and holes at the surface and, as in the case of a photovoltaic detector, within the depletion layer. Also the reflection coefficient may be changed.  The cracks usually have the structure of tracks and therefore one may expect to find tracks of decreased sensitivity on the surface (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7

Dust particles and drying residuals will change the sensitivity according to their optical properties. They may either decrease the sensitivity by absorption or increase it by anti-reflection effects and appear as spiks or holes (Fig. 8).

If an anti-reflection coating is deposited imperfections like holes will cause spots of altered sensitivity just as dust particles may do. However, the effect depends on the wavelength of the light (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9

The resistance of the surface layer of a  photovoltaic detector causes a decrease of efficiency with increasing distance from the contact-electrode. The effect of the distance depends on the ratio of the surface impedance of the surface layer and the junction resistance (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10

At the boundaries of the p-n junction an increase of the sensitivity is often found due to the decreased effect of bulk and surface recombination, especially when the junction lies rather deep (Fig. 11). Of course there is no sensitivity at the alloyed contact electrode and where the lead covers the surface.
The causes of imperfections mentioned above are due to the preparation of the diodes but they will be mixed with the faults in the original crystal. The pictures shown on Fig. 12a and 12b, and 13 are examples of diodes which have no striking inhomogenities.  

The causes for the inhomogeneities of the responsitivity of this specimen are difficult to determine. However, if the output is clipped at a level which is about 80% of the mean value we see that most of the inhomogeneities are not deep.

Fig. 13

The detector in Fig 13. shows a very homogeneous responsitivity along its surface. For a more detailed result a reduced size of the spot and, according to this, a higher cut-off frequency of the electronic circuits will be required.